Which Shows The Area Controlled By The Toltec

The Toltecs

The Toltecs were a Mesoamerican people who preceded the Aztecs and existed between 800 and k CE.

Learning Objectives

Identify the Toltecs

Primal Takeaways

Key Points

• Much of what is known about the Toltecs is based on what has been learned about the Aztecs.
• Historicists believe that Aztec accounts of the Toltecs tin be trusted equally historical sources.
• Others believe that Aztec accounts are too shrouded in myth to exist trusted as sources of truth.
• Certain Mayan sites, such every bit Chichén Itzá, share distinctive archeological traits with religious monuments and buildings in Tula.

Key Terms

• Quetzalcoatl: The feathered serpent deity that appears in carvings at Tula and also in much later buildings and mythology in the Aztec Empire.
• Historicist: A scholar that utilizes Aztec accounts of Toltec culture to piece together the history of the Toltec people.
• Atlantean figures: Gigantic rock statues of Toltec warriors that just appear at the sites of Tula, Chichén Itzá, and Potrero Nuevo.

The Toltec culture is an archaeological Mesoamerican culture that dominated a state centered in Tula in the early Postclassic period of Mesoamerican chronology (c. 800–m CE). Much of what is known about the Toltecs is based on what has been learned most the Aztecs, another Mesoamerican civilization that postdated the Toltecs and admired the Toltecs as predecessors. Since so much of what remains on record almost the Toltecs may have been tainted past Aztec glorification and mythology in the 14th through 16th centuries, it is difficult to parse out the true history.

The after Aztec culture saw the Toltecs as their intellectual and cultural predecessors, and described Toltec culture emanating from Tōllān [ˈtoːlːaːn] ( Nahuatl for Tula) as the epitome of civilization. Indeed, in the Nahuatl linguistic communication the word "Tōltēcatl" [toːlˈteːkat͡] (singular) or "Tōltēcah" [toːlˈteːkaʔ] (plural) came to accept on the meaning "artisan." The Aztec oral and pictographic tradition also described the history of the Toltec Empire, giving lists of rulers and their exploits.

Amidst modern scholars information technology is a matter of debate whether the Aztec narratives of Toltec history should be given credence equally descriptions of actual historical events. While all scholars acknowledge that in that location is a large mythological part of the narrative, some maintain that past using a disquisitional comparative method some level of historicity can exist salvaged from the sources. Others maintain that continued analysis of the narratives as sources of actual history is futile and hinders access to actual noesis of the civilization.

Some other controversy relating to the Toltecs remains how best to understand the reasons behind the perceived similarities in architecture and iconography between the archaeological site of Tula and the Mayan site of Chichén Itzá. No consensus has yet emerged nearly the degree or direction of influence between these 2 sites.

Toltec pyramid at Tula, Hidalgo: Similarities to the pyramid at Chichén Itzá can be seen, including the sloped shape and external steps.

Historicists

The historicists believe that at that place is truth within the stories told past the Aztecs. Theories abound nearly the part the Toltecs actually played in Mesoamerica, from the key Mexican valleys all the way down to certain Maya city-states.

• Désiré Charnay, the start archaeologist to piece of work at Tula, Hidalgo, dedicated the historicist views based on his impression of the Toltec uppercase. He was the first to annotation similarities in architectural styles between Tula and Chichén Itzá, a famous Maya archeological site. This led him to posit the theory that Chichén Itzá had been violently taken over by a Toltec military force under the leadership of Kukulcan.
• Following Charnay, the term "Toltec" has since been associated with the influx of certain Central Mexican cultural traits into the Maya sphere of dominance during the late Classic and early Postclassic periods. The Postclassic Maya civilizations of Chichén Itzá, Mayapán, and the Guatemalan highlands have been referred to equally "Toltecized" or "Mexicanized" Mayas.
• Some 20th-century historicist scholars, such equally David Carrasco, Miguel León Portilla, Nigel Davies and H. B. Nicholson, argued that the Toltecs were a singled-out ethnic grouping. This school of idea connected the "Toltecs" to the archaeological site of Tula, which was taken to be the Tollan of Aztec myth.
• Historicists supportive of the ethnic grouping theory as well debate that much of central Mexico was possibly dominated past a "Toltec empire" betwixt the tenth and twelfth centuries CE. One possible clue they point to is that the Aztecs referred to several Mexican metropolis-states every bit Tollan, "Place of Reeds," such equally "Tollan Cholollan."
• Archaeologist Laurette Sejourné, followed past the historian Enrique Florescano, argued that the "original" Tollan was probably Teotihuacán.

Anti-Historicist

On the other side of the argument lie those who believe that the Aztec stories are clouded by myth and cannot be taken equally accurate accounts of the Toltec culture. Multiple theories place the Toltec and the site of Tula inside a more general framework:

• Some scholars fence that the Toltec era is best considered the 4th of the five Aztec mythical "suns" or ages. This fourth sunday immediately precedes the fifth sun of the Aztec people, which was prophesied to be presided over past Quetzalcoatl.
• Some researchers argue that the only historically reliable data in the Aztec chronicles are the names of some rulers and possibly some of the conquests ascribed to them.
• Skeptics fence that the ancient city of Teotihuacán and the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan were much more influential sites for Mesoamerican culture than Tula. Notwithstanding, this skeptical school of thought acknowledges that Tula still contributed to central Mexican cultural heritage in unique means.
• Recent scholarship does not frame Tula, Hidalgo, as the capital letter of the Toltecs as described in the Aztec accounts. Rather, it takes "Toltec" to hateful simply an inhabitant of Tula during its apogee. Separating the term "Toltec" from those of the Aztec accounts, information technology attempts to observe archaeological clues to the ethnicity, history, and social arrangement of the inhabitants of the site of Tula.

Archeology and Clues

While the residents of the site of Tula, Hidalgo, remain a mysterious group, and their indigenous and social dynamics are obscure, they left behind substantial archeological records that modern scholars have attempted to parse through.

Stone carving of Quetzalcoatl: This powerful feathered ophidian deity has deep mythological roots in Aztec stories. He also appears regularly in carvings at Tula.

The urban center of Tula boasts 15-foot-tall warrior statues carved from stone. These same Atlantean figures, equally they are chosen, also appear at the Mayan sites of Chichén Itzá and Potrero Nuevo.

Toltec warrior statues at Tula: These stone statues highlight the creative style of the urban center of Tula. They likewise connect this city with other cultural sites in Mesoamerica.

Tula likewise boasts intricate carvings of eagles, jaguars, hummingbirds, and butterflies, all of which the Aztec Empire used prolifically. Furthermore, the site of Tula includes two ball courts for the religious rubber ball game that appears in many Mesoamerican civilizations. Along with these distinct relics, the Toltecs likewise congenital distinctive pyramids that mirror other sites, such as Chichén Itzá.

Many questions still remain well-nigh the inhabitants of this site, including questions about their origin and their demise. This site also raises questions near the period of influence between multiple Mesoamerican cultures before the ascension of the Aztec Empire.

The Aztec People

The Aztecs were a pre-Columbian Mesoamerican people of Primal United mexican states during the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries.

Learning Objectives

Describe distinguishing factors of Aztec life

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• The Aztec "empire" was more than of a collection of city-states than an empire.
• Mexico Metropolis today is built on the ruins of Tenochtitlan, which was the capital of the Aztec empire.
• Agriculture played a key office in the Aztec culture. Irrigation and floating garden beds allowed people to abound several crops a year.

Primal Terms

• altepetl: Small, mostly contained city-states that often paid tribute to the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.
• Nahuatl: The language spoken by the Mexica people who made up the Aztec Triple Alliance, as well as many city-states throughout the region.
• blossom wars: The form of ritual war where warriors from the Triple Brotherhood fought with enemy Nahua city-states.

The Aztecs were a pre-Columbian Mesoamerican people of Central Mexico in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. They called themselves Mexica. The Republic of Mexico and its capital, Mexico City, derive their names from the give-and-take "Mexica." The capital of the Aztec empire was Tenochtitlan, congenital on a raised island in Lake Texcoco. Modern Mexico Metropolis is built on the ruins of Tenochtitlan.

From the 13th century, the Valley of Mexico was the heart of Aztec civilization; here the majuscule of the Aztec Triple Brotherhood, the metropolis of Tenochtitlan, was congenital upon raised islets in Lake Texcoco. The Triple Alliance was comprised of Tenochtitlan along with their principal allies of Acolhuas of Texcoco and Tepanecs of Tlacopan. They formed a tributary empire expanding its political hegemony far beyond the Valley of Mexico, acquisition other metropolis-states throughout Mesoamerica. At its pinnacle, Aztec culture had rich and complex mythological and religious traditions, and reached remarkable architectural and artistic accomplishments. In 1521 Hernán Cortés, along with a large number of Nahuatl -speaking indigenous allies, conquered Tenochtitlan and defeated the Aztec Triple Brotherhood under the leadership of Hueyi Tlatoani Moctezuma Ii. Later the Spanish founded the new settlement of United mexican states City on the site of the ruined Aztec upper-case letter, from where they proceeded to colonize Central America.

Bowl in the Valley of United mexican states: Circa 1519, at the time of the inflow of the Spanish.

Politics

The Aztec empire was an example of an empire that ruled by indirect means. Like almost European empires, it was ethnically very diverse, just unlike most European empires, it was more than of a system of tribute than a single system of government. Although the form of government is oft referred to equally an empire, in fact most areas within the empire were organized equally city-states, known equally "altepetl" in Nahuatl. These were minor polities ruled by a king (tlatoani) from a legitimate dynasty.

Two of the primary architects of the Aztec empire were the one-half-brothers Tlacaelel and Montezuma I, nephews of Itzcoatl. Moctezuma I succeeded Itzcoatl equally Hueyi Tlatoani (or rex) in 1440. Although he was also offered the opportunity to exist tlatoani, Tlacaelel preferred to operate equally the ability behind the throne. Tlacaelel focused on reforming the Aztec state and religious practices. According to some sources, he ordered the burning of most of the extant Aztec books, claiming that they contained lies. He thereupon rewrote the history of the Aztec people, thus creating a mutual awareness of history for the Aztecs. This rewriting led straight to the curriculum taught to scholars, and promoted the conventionalities that the Aztecs were e'er a powerful and mythic nation—forgetting forever a possible truthful history of modest origins. I component of this reform was the institution of ritual state of war (the blossom wars) as a style to have trained warriors, and the necessity of constant sacrifices to keep the Sun moving.

Economics

The Aztec economy can exist divided into a political sector, nether the command of nobles and kings, and a commercial sector that operated independently of the political sector. The political sector of the economy centered on the control of land and labor by kings and nobles. Nobles endemic all land, and commoners got admission to farmland and other fields through a variety of arrangements, from rental through sharecropping to serf-similar labor and slavery. These payments from commoners to nobles supported both the lavish lifestyles of the high nobility and the finances of metropolis-states. Many luxury appurtenances were produced for consumption by nobles. The producers of featherwork, sculptures, jewelry, and other luxury items were full-time commoner specialists who worked for noble patrons.

Several forms of money were in circulation, most notably the cacao bean. These beans could exist used to buy food, staples, and cloth. Around thirty beans would purchase a rabbit, while i father was recorded equally selling his daughter for around 200 cacao beans. The Aztec rulers also maintained circuitous road systems with regular stops to residual and swallow every ten miles or so. Couriers walked these roads regularly to ensure they were in adept working order and to bring news dorsum to Tenochtitlan.

Aztec headdress: The feathers most likely came from a tropical rainforest far away, and the headdress was probably endemic past an elite or noble.

Trade as well formed a central part of Aztec life. While local commoners regularly paid tribute to the nobles a few times a yr, at that place was besides all-encompassing trade with other regions in Mesoamerica. Archeological evidence shows that jade, obsidian, feathers, and shells reached the majuscule through established merchandise routes. Rulers and nobles enjoyed wearing these more than exotic goods and having them fashioned into expressive headdresses and jewelry.

Compages and Agriculture

The capital letter of Tenochtitlan was divided into four even sections called campans. All of these sections were interlaced together with a series of canals that allowed for easy transportation throughout the islets of Lake Texcoco. Commoner housing was usually built of reeds or wood, while noble houses and religious sites were constructed from rock.

Agronomics played a large function in the economic system and society of the Aztecs. They used dams to implement irrigation techniques in the valleys. They also implemented a raised bed gardening technique by layering mud and plant vegetation in the lake in order to create moist gardens. These raised beds were chosen chinampas. These extremely fertile beds could harvest seven different crops each year. Some of the most essential crops in Aztec agriculture included:

• Avocados
• Beans
• Squash
• Sugariness Potatoes
• Maize
• Tomatoes
• Amarinth
• Chilies
• Cotton
• Cacao beans

Nearly farming occurred exterior of the busy heart of Tenochtitlan. Still, each family generally had a garden where they could grow maize, fruits, herbs, and medicinal plants on a smaller calibration.

Aztec Religion

The Aztec organized religion focused on death, rebirth, and the renewal of the sun. The Aztecs skilful ritual sacrifice, ball games, and bloodletting in club to renew the sun each twenty-four hour period.

Learning Objectives

Outline the key points of Aztec religious practices and beliefs

Key Takeaways

Primal Points

• The Aztec religion incorporated deities from multiple cultures into its pantheon.
• Ritual sacrifice played an essential function in the religious practice of the Aztecs, and they believed information technology ensured the sun would ascent again and crops would grow.
• The Aztecs utilized a 365-twenty-four hours calendar divide into 18 months based on agricultural traditions and different deities.

Key Terms

• Huitzilopochtli: The left-handed hummingbird god that mythically founded Tenochtitlan and represented war and the sunday.
• Toxcatl: A month in the Aztec sun calendar that represented drought and ritual renewal.
• Mesoamerican ballgame: This ritual practice involved a safety ball that the players hit with their elbows, knees, and hips, and tried to get through a small hoop in a special court.

The Aztecs had at least ii manifestations of the supernatural: tētl and tēixiptla. Tētl, which the Spaniards and European scholars routinely mistranslated as "god" or "demon," referred rather to an impersonal, mysterious force that permeated the world. Tēixiptla, by contrast, denoted the physical representations ("idols," statues, and figurines) of the tētl as well as the man cultic activity surrounding this concrete representation.

The Aztec religious cosmology included the physical globe plane, where humans lived, the underworld (or land of the expressionless), and the realm of the sky. Due to the flexible imperial political structure, a large pantheon of gods was incorporated into the larger cultural religious traditions. The Aztecs besides worshipped deities that were cardinal to older Mesoamerican cultures, such as the Olmecs. Some of the near central deities that the Aztecs paid homage to included:

• Huitzilopochtli – The "left-handed hummingbird" god was the god of war and the dominicus and also the founder of Tenochtitlan.
• Quetzalcoatl – The feathered ophidian god that represented the morning time star, wind, and life.
• Tlaloc – The pelting and storm god.
• Mixcoatl – The "deject snake" god that was incorporated into Aztec belief and represented war.
• Xipe Totec – The flayed god that was associated with fertility. This deity was as well incorporated from cultures under the Aztec Triple Alliance umbrella.

Huitzilopochtli as depicted in the Codex Telleriano-Remensis: This depiction of the war and sunday god shows him in all of his warrior and ritual garb.

Founding Myth of Tenochtitlan

Veneration of Huitzilopochtli, the personification of the sun and of state of war, was central to the religious, social, and political practices of the Mexica people. Huitzilopochtli attained this primal position afterward the founding of Tenochtitlan and the formation of the Mexica urban center-country society in the 14th century.
According to myth, Huitzilopochtli directed the wanderers to constitute a city on the site where they would see an hawkeye devouring a snake perched on a fruit-bearing nopal cactus. (It was said that Huitzilopochtli killed his nephew, Cópil, and threw his heart on the lake. Huitzilopochtli honoured Cópil by causing a cactus to abound over Cópil's heart.) This legendary vision is pictured on the coat of arms of Mexico.

Ritual and Sacrifice

Like all other Mesoamerican cultures, the Aztecs played a variant of the Mesoamerican ballgame, named "tlachtli" or "ollamaliztli" in Nahuatl. The game was played with a ball of solid rubber, called an olli. The players hitting the brawl with their hips, knees, and elbows, and had to pass the ball through a rock ring to automatically win. The practice of the abortion carried religious and mythological meanings and also served as sport. Many times players of
the game were captured during the famous Aztec blossom wars with neighboring rivals. Losers of the game were often ritually sacrificed every bit an homage to the gods.

A delineation of human being sacrifice in the Codex Magliabechiano: This Spanish rendering of human sacrifices reflects the outsider'southward view of these ritual traditions.

While human sacrifice was practiced throughout Mesoamerica, the Aztecs, if their own accounts are to be believed, brought this practice to an unprecedented level. For example, for the reconsecration of the Keen Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, the Aztecs reported that they sacrificed 80,400 prisoners over the class of iv days, reportedly by Ahuitzotl, the Smashing Speaker himself. This number, nonetheless, is not universally accepted. Accounts by the Tlaxcaltecas, the primary enemy of the Aztecs at the time of the Spanish Conquest, show that at least some of them considered it an honor to be sacrificed. In 1 fable, the warrior Tlahuicole was freed by the Aztecs merely eventually returned of his own volition to die in ritual sacrifice. Tlaxcala also skilful the homo sacrifice of captured Aztec citizens.

Everyone was affected by human cede, and it should be considered in the context of the religious cosmology of the Aztec people. It was considered necessary in order for the world to proceed and be reborn each new day. Decease and ritual blood sacrifice ensured the sunday would rise over again and crops
would continue to grow. Not only were captives and warriors sacrificed, but nobles would often exercise ritual bloodletting during certain sacred days of the year. Every level of Aztec society was affected past the belief in the human responsibility to pay homage to the gods, and anyone could serve as a sacrificial offering.

Priests and Religious Architecture

A noble priest form played an integral office in the religious worship and sacrifices of Aztec society. They were responsible for collecting tributes and ensuring there were plenty appurtenances for sacrificial ceremonies. They also trained young men to impersonate various deities for an entire year before existence sacrificed on a specific 24-hour interval.  These priests were respected by all of gild and were also responsible for practicing ritual bloodletting on themselves at regular intervals. Priests could come from the noble or common classes, but they would receive their training at different schools and perform different functions.

Aztec pyramid of St. Cecilia Acatitlan: This pyramid is typical of Aztec religious architecture. Priests would take stood on the platform at the superlative to perform religious duties and sacrifices.

Priests performed rituals from special temples and religious houses. The temples were generally huge pyramidal structures that were covered over with a new surface every l-two years, pregnant some pyramids were gigantic in scale. These feats of architectural display were the sites of large sacrificial
offerings and festivals, where Spanish reports said blood would run down the steps of the pyramids. The priests ofttimes performed smaller daily rituals in small, dark temple houses where incense and images of of import gods were displayed.

Aztec Agenda

Aztec sun calendar: This calendar shows the eighteen months circumvoluted around a representation of the sun.

The Aztecs based their agenda on the sun and utilized a 365-day religious calendar. Information technology was dissever into eighteen twenty-24-hour interval months, and each month had its own religious, and often agricultural, theme. For example, the late winter month Altcahualo fell between February 14 and March five and represented a time of sowing crops and fertility. The calendar month Toxcatl occurred in May and was a fourth dimension of drought in the central valley. The Aztecs saw this month as a time of renewal, and it involved a large festival where a young man that had been impersonating the god Tezcatlipoca for a full year would be sacrificed.

The Aztec in the Colonial Period

The Aztec empire was defeated by an alliance between the Castilian and the Confederacy of Tlaxcala.

Learning Objectives

Describe the role of the Confederacy of Tlaxcala in the fall of the Aztec empire

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• The arrival of Hernándo Cortés in 1519 marked the first of the end for the Aztec empire.
• Cortés and the Confederacy of Tlaxcala allied to militarily defeat the Aztecs, who were further weakened by a smallpox epidemic in 1520–1521 and subsequent outbreaks.
• Aztec hegemonic structure was re-appropriated to serve the Castilian colonialists.
• Some aspects of Aztec civilisation, such as the language, survive.

Key Terms

• Tlaxcalan: The people of a pre-Columbian city and state in Central Mexico, who helped Cortés conquer the Aztec empire.
• Bartolomé de las Casas: (Seville, c. 1484– Madrid, July 18, 1566) Sixteenth-century Spanish historian, social reformer, and Dominican friar. Arriving as one of the beginning European settlers in the Americas, he participated in the atrocities committed confronting the Native Americans past the Castilian colonists. In 1515, he reformed his views and advocated before King Charles Five, Holy Roman Emperor, on behalf of rights for the natives.

Overview

The Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire was one of the about significant events in the Castilian colonization of the Americas. The Castilian campaign began in February 1519, and was declared victorious on August xiii, 1521, when a coalition army of Spanish forces and native Tlaxcalan warriors led by Hernándo Cortés and Xicotencatl the Younger captured the emperor Cuauhtemoc and Tenochtitlan, the majuscule of the Aztec empire. The fall of the Aztec empire was the key outcome in the formation of the Spanish overseas empire, with New Kingdom of spain, which later became Mexico, a major component.

Hernándo Cortés

Conquest of the Aztecs

During the campaign, Cortés was given support from a number of tributaries and rivals of the Aztecs, including the Totonacs and the Tlaxcaltecas, Texcocans, and other urban center-states peculiarly bordering Lake Texcoco. In their accelerate, the allies were tricked and ambushed several times by the people they encountered. Subsequently viii months of battles and negotiations, which overcame the diplomatic resistance of the Aztec emperor Moctezuma 2 to his visit, Cortés arrived in Tenochtitlan on November eight, 1519, where he was welcomed by Moctezuma and took up residence. When news reached Cortés of the death of several of his men during the Aztec attack on the Totonacs in Veracruz, he took the opportunity to accept Moctezuma captive; Moctezuma immune himself to be captured as a diplomatic gesture. Capturing the indigenous ruler was standard operating procedure for Spaniards in their expansion in the Caribbean, and then capturing Moctezuma had considerable precedent.

When Cortés left Tenochtitlan to render to the coast and bargain with the trek of Pánfilo de Narváez, Pedro de Alvarado was left in charge. Alvarado allowed a meaning Aztec feast to be historic in Tenochtitlan, and in the pattern of the before massacre in Cholula airtight off the foursquare and massacred the celebrating Aztec noblemen. The biography of Cortés by Francisco López de Gómara contains a description of the massacre. The Alvarado massacre at the Chief Temple of Tenochtitlan precipitated rebellion past the population of the city. When the captured emperor Moctezuma II, now seen as a mere boob of the invading Spaniards, attempted to calm the outraged populace, he was killed past a projectile. Cortés, who past then had returned to Tenochtitlan, and his men fled the capital metropolis during the Noche Triste in June 1520. The Spanish, Tlaxcalans, and reinforcements returned a year later on, on August 13, 1521, to a civilization that had been wiped out by dearth and smallpox. This made information technology easier to conquer the remaining Aztecs.

Backwash

To reward Spaniards who participated in the conquest of what is now contemporary Mexico, the Castilian crown authorized grants of native labor in detail ethnic communities via the encomienda. The indigenous were not slaves, chattel bought and sold or removed from their home community, but the system was one of forced labor. The indigenous of Central Mexico had practices rendering labor and tribute products to their polity's elites, and those elites to the Mexica overlords in Tenochtitlan, so the Spanish arrangement of encomienda was built on pre-existing patterns. The Spanish conquerors in Mexico during the early on colonial era lived off the labor of the ethnic. Due to some horrifying instances of abuse against the ethnic peoples, Bishop Bartolomé de las Casas suggested importing black slaves to replace them (he later repented when he saw the even worse handling given to the blackness slaves).

Notwithstanding, Aztec culture survives today. Mod-24-hour interval United mexican states Urban center is built on the site of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan. At that place are still i.5 one thousand thousand people who speak the Aztec language of Nahuatl, and function of the Mexica migration story appears on the Mexican flag.

Which Shows The Area Controlled By The Toltec,

Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-toltecs-and-the-aztecs/

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